Unit 1: History, Historiography, and Human Evolution

The first unit establishes the foundational methodology and historiography necessary for academic historical inquiry. It explores the scientific origins of human beings and the evolutionary stages of early cultures across the globe. This knowledge provides a framework for understanding how history is recorded, interpreted, and used to analyze the patterns of human development.

1.1. History and Historiography

• 1.1.1. History as an Academic Discipline
  • History refers to the study of past events, thoughts, sayings, and deeds performed by humans.
  • It is an organized and critical study based on the interpretation of evidence rather than just a collection of facts.
  • The term originates from the Greek word “istoria” (historia) meaning inquiry or knowledge acquired by investigation.
  • It covers pre-history, the era before writing was developed around 4000 B.C..
  • Uses of History: Helps societies learn from achievements, avoid past mistakes, establish identity, and develop critical thinking skills.
  • Abuse of History: Occurs when facts are selected to justify current political realities or when the past is judged purely by modern values.
• History and Other Sciences
  • History is a science because it follows a methodology and requires reliable sources to prove findings.
  • Unlike natural sciences, history does not conduct controlled experiments and often includes value judgments.
  • Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886) is known as the “father of modern historiography” for establishing modern academic historical study.
• Key Elements in the Study of History
  • Sources: The primary evidence needed to support any historical statement.
  • Interpretation: The process of understanding the meaning and originality of evidence.
  • Presentation: Communicating facts in a readable and attractive manner.
  • Objectivity: Presenting the truth accurately without bias for or against any subject.
• 1.1.2. Ethiopian Historiography
  • Ethiopia has an indigenous tradition of writing history dating back to the 14th century, primarily through chroniclers and hagiographers.
  • Job Ludolf (1624-1704) founded Ethiopian studies in Europe and published the first modern history of Ethiopia in 1684.
  • Early studies focused on Northern Ethiopia due to its written language (Ge’ez), available archaeological sources, and external records from Greek and Arab writers.
  • The Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) was established in 1963 to provide more comprehensive research across the country.
• 1.1.3. Sources of History
  • Primary Sources: Items directly from the time being studied (e.g., monuments, inscriptions, coins, letters, chronicles, eyewitness accounts).
  • Secondary Sources: Reconstructions of the past by people who did not witness the events (e.g., history books, articles, hear-say oral information).
  • Source Criticism: The essential process of checking the authenticity (originality) and meaning of sources before using them.
• 1.1.4. Periodization in History
  • Periodization is the chronological division of the human past into shorter, manageable segments.
  • African periodization is often defined by relations with Europe: pre-colonial, colonial, and post-colonial.
  • Ethiopian Periodization:
    1. Ancient Period: c. 1000 B.C. to 1270 A.D.
    2. Medieval Period: 1270 A.D. to 1855 A.D.
    3. Modern Period: 1855 A.D. to the present.

1.2. Origin of Human Beings

• 1.2.1. Theories of Origin
  • Scientific knowledge of human origins expanded in the 19th century through archaeology and anthropology.
  • Evolutionary theory posits that humans and apes shared a common ancestor between 8 and 5 million years ago.
• 1.2.2. Stages of Human Evolution
  • Hominids: Members of the biological family including humans and extinct human-like creatures that walked upright (bipedalism) and had enlarged brains.
  • Australopithecines: Early species including Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy), discovered in 1974 in Ethiopia’s Hadar region.
  • Genus Homo: Appearing about 2.5 million years ago with larger brains and smaller jaws.
    1. Homo habilis (“Handy human”): First to make stone tools using Oldowan technology.
    2. Homo erectus (“Upright human”): First to move out of Africa, master fire, and use Acheulian “hand axes”.
    3. Homo sapiens: Split into “archaic” and “modern” groups; modern remains at Kibish (Ethiopia) are over 100,000 years old.

1.2.3 The Stone Age and Neolithic Revolution

• Paleolithic (Old Stone Age): Lasted from 2.5 million to 8,000 B.P.
  • Middle Paleolithic: Introduced flake technology for smaller tools like spears and knives.
  • Upper Paleolithic: Featured standardized blade technology and microliths (small geometric tools used in composite weapons).
• Neolithic Revolution (New Stone Age): 8,000 to 5,000 B.P.
  • Marked by a transition to sedentary life, plant and animal domestication, and the use of ceramics and polished stone tools.

1.3. Emergence of State 🏰

• States emerged as societies became more complex following the Agricultural Revolution.
• Key factors included centralized religious systems, war leadership, and the control of trade.

Key Terminology

• Historiography: The organized study and writing of history as an academic discipline.
• Change and continuity: Patterns and causes that determine historical developments over time.
• Primary sources: Evidence directly from the period being studied, such as coins, letters, or eyewitness accounts.
• Objectivity: The goal of presenting historical facts in an unbiased and accurate manner.
• Sources: The specific evidence (historical information) required to support statements.
• Periodization: Dividing the human past into shorter, chronological periods to simplify study.
• Hominids: Prehistoric human-like creatures with enlarged brains and the ability to walk on two legs.
• Neolithic Revolution: The massive shift from hunting and gathering to farming and settled community life.
• Pre-history: The period of human existence before the invention of writing (c. 4000 B.C.).
• Istoria (historia): Greek word for “inquiry” or “knowledge acquired by investigation”.
• Authenticity: The originality and genuineness of a historical source.
• Methodology: The rules, principles, and techniques followed to acquire knowledge in a discipline.
• Bipedalism: The biological trait of walking upright on two legs.
• Oldowan technology: The earliest stone tools consisting of flakes and cores used by Homo habilis.
• Acheulian: Precise “hand axe” tools characteristic of Homo erectus.
• Microliths: Small, geometric blade segments used as components in tools like arrows and bows.