Unit 1: The Discipline of History and Human Evolution

Significance: This unit establishes the foundational methodology of history as a discipline, distinguishing it from fiction through the rigorous use of evidence. It explores the origins of humanity, emphasizing Ethiopia’s pivotal role as the “Cradle of Mankind” through key archaeological discoveries. Finally, it traces the technological and social progression of early humans from the Stone Age to the emergence of civilization.

1.1 The Meaning and Uses of History

• Definition: History is the organized study of past human actions, events, and societies based on critical examination of evidence.
• Etymology: Derived from the Greek word Istoria, meaning “inquiry” or “investigation.”
• Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.): Known as the “Father of History”; he was the first to write a narrative of the past (The Persian Wars) using a systematic approach.
• Prehistory vs. History:
  • Prehistory: The vast period of human experience before the invention of writing (c. 5000 years ago).
  • History: The period following the invention of writing, allowing for written records.
• Uses of History:
  • Helps understand the present by analyzing past causes and effects.
  • Provides a sense of identity and continuity for nations and communities.
  • Develops critical thinking and analytical skills (distinguishing fact from opinion).
  • Offers lessons to avoid repeating past mistakes.

1.2 Sources of History

• Historical Sources: The raw materials used by historians to reconstruct the past. They are classified into two main categories:
• 1. Primary Sources: Original, first-hand accounts or objects from the time period being studied.
  • Examples: Fossils, tools (artifacts), coins, inscriptions, letters, diaries, eyewitness accounts, monuments, and ruins.
  • Significance: They provide direct evidence and are considered the most reliable.
• 2. Secondary Sources: Accounts or interpretations created after the event by people who were not present.
  • Examples: History textbooks, biographies, movies, and research articles.
  • Significance: They synthesize primary sources to tell a story or analyze an event.
• Oral Tradition: Information passed down verbally from generation to generation (poems, songs, legends). Crucial for studying African history where written records may be scarce.

1.3 Theories of Human Evolution

• Creationism: The belief that the universe and living organisms originate from specific acts of divine creation, as described in religious texts (e.g., the Bible, the Quran).
• Evolution Theory: The scientific explanation that species change over time through natural selection.
  • Charles Darwin: The English naturalist who formulated the theory of evolution.
  • The Origin of Species (1859): Darwin’s seminal book proposing that all life descended from common ancestors and that the “fittest” survive.
• The Process of Hominid Evolution:
  • Hominids: The family of primates that includes humans and their fossil ancestors.
  • Bipedalism: The ability to walk upright on two legs; a key distinguishing feature of hominids.

1.4 Ethiopia and the Horn: The Cradle of Mankind

Ethiopia is globally significant due to the abundance of hominid fossils discovered in the Great East African Rift Valley.

• Key Hominid Discoveries in Ethiopia:
  1. Ardipithecus ramidus (“Ardi”):
     • Age: ~4.4 million years old.
     • Location: Middle Awash, Afar.
     • Significance: One of the earliest known hominids; showed early signs of bipedalism.
  2. Australopithecus afarensis (“Lucy” or “Dinkinesh”):
     • Age: ~3.18 million years old.
     • Location: Hadar, Afar.
     • Discoverer: Donald Johanson (1974).
     • Significance: Provided the first complete skeleton showing fully bipedal locomotion. “Dinkinesh” means “You are wonderful” in Amharic.
  3. Australopithecus anamensis: Discovered in the Middle Awash.
  4. Australopithecus garhi: Discovered in the Middle Awash; associated with very early stone tools.

1.5 The Genus Homo and the Stone Age

The Genus Homo (Latin for “Man”) marks the development of larger brains and tool-making abilities.

• Stages of the Genus Homo:
  1. Homo habilis (“Handy Man”):
     • First tool maker (Oldowan tools).
     • Lived ~2.4 to 1.4 million years ago.
  2. Homo erectus (“Upright Man”):
     • First to leave Africa and master the use of fire.
     • Produced Acheulean tools (hand axes).
  3. Homo sapiens (“Wise Man”):
     • Modern humans.
     • Key Fossils in Ethiopia: Omo I and Omo II (Omo Valley) and Herto fossils (Middle Awash), dated to ~195,000 and ~160,000 years ago respectively. These are among the oldest Homo sapiens fossils in the world.
• The Stone Age Periods:
  1. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age): Use of crude stone tools (choppers, hand axes). Hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Discovery of fire.
  2. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): Transition period. Microlithic (small stone) tools. Beginnings of dog domestication.
  3. Neolithic (New Stone Age): The Neolithic Revolution (c. 10,000 years ago).
     • Key Characteristics: Domestication of plants and animals (agriculture), polished stone tools, pottery making, and settlement in permanent villages.